Ashlea Russell
BA (Hons) Psychology
Abstract
Stress is a prominent area within Occupational Psychology which is known to have negative impacts on an individual and workplace when it is not managed effectively, with it being the main cause of absence across organisations. Much literature focuses on health and wellbeing strategies of paid staff, whereas less is known about how psychology is implemented into the third sector. Investigating stress in advancement of health charity organisations highlighted issues surrounding leadership, motivations, conflicting psychological contracts and support. Proposals for organisational change and improvement to overcoming identified issues are analysed, recommending employee-led approaches, recognising motivators and on-going training. The report then concludes with a reflective discussion on how knowledge of organisational psychology could be applied to one’s personal working life
Introduction
Occupational Psychology concerns human behaviour in work and organisations through applying psychological theories, practice and science to working populations (BPS, 2021; Zibarras & Lewis, 2013). Occupational Psychology covers areas regarding learning and developing in the workplace, psychological assessment, motivation, training, organisational changes, leadership and health and wellbeing and usually these entwine one another (BPS, 2019). Occupational Psychology can be implemented across all organisation sector types, however, in this case study the focus will be organisations within the third sector with predominantly volunteer workforces. Non-profit organisations, also referred to as the third sector and charities, are organisations chartered for charitable purposes and have legal requirements to benefit the public (Charities Act, 2013).
There are numerous legal charitable purposes enabling organisations to become a charity and for the clarity of this case study, the focus is on charities whose purpose is the advancement of health, prevention of sickness, relief of suffering, promotion of physical and mental health, and methods of treatments (Charities Act, 2013).
The Occupational Psychology area of Wellbeing at Work concerns building and maintaining programmes for better health and wellbeing in the workplace, and ensuring all involved within an organisation recognise the importance of health and wellbeing promotion (BPS, 2021; Lewis & Zibarras, 2013). Measuring wellbeing in general at work should be a comprehensive process with components including subjective wellbeing, social wellbeing and eudaimonic wellbeing (Fisher, 2014). These cover organisational relationships, social support, job satisfaction, 23 attitudes, engagement and motivations (Fisher, 2014; Lewis & Zibarras, 2013).
Stress can be articulated by a mix of subjective and objective wellbeing factors, encompassing both individual determinants such as satisfaction as well as socio-cultural determinants such as circumstances (Hefferon & Boniwell, 2011). Stress models usually classify within engineering models, whereby stress is assumed to be an automatic response to external stimuli (Cannon, 1932; Szabo et al., 2017), as well as physiological factors, focusing on internal responses to stress (Lewis and Zibarras 2013). Work related stress fits into a transactional model, blending both models looking into what causes workplace stress; its effects and coping mechanisms (Gross, 2020). Stress continues to be the main cause of absence across organisations (CIPD, 2022). However, 95% of individuals off work with stress gave a different reason (Time to Change, 2019), which highlights conflicts surrounding stress in the workplace and its importance within Occupational Psychology. Health and Safety Executive (HSE) recognises the importance of involving management to improve wellbeing, through their management standards that must be stringently administered to manage work-related stress involving relationships, demands, support systems, control in the workplace, roles and organisational changes (HSE, 2019). It has been identified that across all sectors, large organisations provide support in the majority of health and wellbeing areas, although public sector organisations are more likely to provide provisions for a range of health and wellbeing activities (CIPD, 2022) Similarly, it has been highlighted that public sector organisations were more likely to conduct stress audits and involve occupational health specialists (CIPD, 2022).
Much literature focuses on health and wellbeing of paid employees and employers of larger organisations which have differing workplace structures and roles compared to the third sector, therefore the research into how psychology is implemented into the health and wellbeing of non-profit organisations, unpaid workers and trustees is of growing interest (Zappalà & Lyons, 2009).
Analysis
Leadership of a predominantly volunteer workforce can cause issues to arise surrounding policies, due to volunteers not having the same rights as paid workers, meaning that volunteers do not need to give a notice period (The Charity Commission, 2013). This can cause leaders to face potential shortages, putting added pressure on providing environments to increase volunteer retention (Karl et al., 2009). Lack of retention can cause further stress for leadership roles, particularly through succession management and not having volunteers with appropriate skills to fill in gaps (Elkin, 2013). Volunteers are less amenable to methods of leadership compared to paid workers, and are more responsive to encouragement of work, pride of a charity and effectiveness of a charity, meaning when these are absent, volunteers are more likely to leave (Galindo-Kuhn & Guzley, 2001; Pearce, 1993; van Knippenberg, 2011). A main cause of stress within a healthcare environment is due to employee shortages causing more workload for others in the organisation (Mohammad Mosadeghrad, 2014). Leadership style can determine the social outcomes volunteers experience and whether there is a sense of group identity within the organisation (Haslam et al., 2011). Organisations with charitable purposes are more likely to need leaders that can provide a vision in order to engage volunteers, as financial engagement is absent (Haslam et al., 2011). A study comparing emergency services paid workers and volunteers showed support and recognition was a higher predictor of job satisfaction for volunteers, whereas for paid individuals, investment of employee development was more of a motivator (Fallon, & Rice, 2011). This highlights another factor that voluntary organisations need to consider in order to foster commitment in its volunteer workforce.
It is also key for leaders of volunteers to recognise that motivation can vary between people and time (Gopalan et al., 2017; Loh et al., 2017; Mahmoud et al., 2020; Maslow, 1943). A study of health professional student volunteers motivations amplifies the different motivational goals between volunteers and what they seek to meet. Some volunteers aimed attentions at meeting transcendence and actualisation needs at the top of Maslow’s (1943) Hierarchy of Needs, whereas others focused lower on the hierarchy, concerning deficiency needs (Loh et al., 2017). Differences in needs can impact how a leader motivates their volunteers. Taking the approach that needs are not universal, but rather dependent on individual differences can help increase wellbeing within the workplace (McClelland, 1987). Another study using qualitative methods saw mental health volunteers express that reasons for volunteering revolved around impact, personal growth and altruism (Cassidy et al., 2019). Using Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy, these reasons address the higher levels, indicating that health volunteers’ needs can extend across the whole of the hierarchy, applying added pressure on leaders to address different needs in order for volunteers to be satisfied.
Psychological contracts are interpretations, assumptions or beliefs by a person and their employer and organisation about what they expect from one another (Conway & Briner, 2006; Hager & Renfro, 2020; Smith & Liao-Troth, 2009). The psychological contract of volunteers is impacted by different factors than typical paid workers, as the transactional contract does not involve salaried expectations (Hager & Renfro, 2020). The subjective perceptions of volunteering could see it as activism and even leisure for some (Nichols, 2012), which could differ from what leaders see their volunteer’s roles as, resulting in conflicts. It is important to understand the factors that contribute to a volunteer’s psychological contract as it impacts how volunteers interpret their roles and how they are executed (Smith & Liao-Troth, 2009). Negative strains on this psychological contract towards the organisation can result in decreased motivation and wellbeing for both volunteers and leaders (Smith & Liao-Troth, 2009). Healthcare volunteers may take on characteristics of a paid professional which could impact this psychological contract causing roles and expectations to be misinterpreted (Burbeck et al., 2014; Smith & Liao-Troth, 2009). This could also explain the findings that stressors have been seen to impact newer volunteers more than more experienced peers (Claxton-Oldfield, 2015), which could be due to potential conflicting thoughts about what is expected.
Stress is heightened when individuals have little control and support from others (Rabenu & Yaniv, 2017; WHO, 2020). Unlike paid workers, volunteers do not have statutory protections when raising concerns or whistleblowing to relevant authorities (GOV.UK, 2021). This highlights a lack of control over particular issues, as well as a potential lack of professional support. Lack of control can also be amplified due to the charity sector often experiencing concealed situations regarding funding, which can impact feelings of role security for volunteers (Glazer & Liu, 2017; The Charity Commission, 2016). Role security has been seen to relate to perceived control (Tinne et al., 2014). When volunteer management does not communicate clear visions of volunteering services, tensions can arise regarding job security and expectations (Einarsdóttir & Osia, 2020). In healthcare, stress can lead to burnout; a work-related phenomenon assumed to be caused by an imbalance of fairness, control, reward, community, workload and values (Krisberg, 2018; Maslach, 2001; Maslach & Leiter, 2016). Research into wellbeing and commitment involving volunteer ambulance workers saw social support as a protective factor against burnout, with role conflict a primary factor of burnout occurring (Setti et al., 2018). Social support in these contexts has been seen to increase uses of effective stress coping strategies, highlighting the influence that social support and control has on relieving stress (Akouchekian, 2009; Rabenu & Yaniv, 2017).
In relation to contemporary issues, COVID-19 saw shifts and restructuring across all sectors (Jones, 2021). Psychological work related stress can arise with changing work roles and practices causing individuals to question whether they have the necessary abilities to still do what is expected of them (Jones, 2021; Setti et al., 2018). Findings show work demands which are imbalanced in terms of knowledge, skills and abilities increase stress within the job role (WHO, 2020). This mismatching of job requirements and skillsets can be exacerbated when using a voluntary workforce that has the pressure of relieving NHS services, such as healthcare charities, without the same skillsets required of paid NHS workers (Jones, 2021). Similarly, research conducted looking at resilience showed NHS healthcare workers reported reduced levels of psychological distress in the lockdown period, compared to the general public (Pink et al., 2021). This could potentially highlight that NHS professionals may have more development and training in preparing and coping with troublesome times. However, healthcare charity volunteers are often part of the general public and can have similar work roles as trained NHS staff, often seen taking on characteristics of paid professionals (Burbeck et al., 2014).
Proposals
Due to funding constraints experienced by the voluntary sector, effective low-cost interventions are a key goal to reduce stress. Solutions to overcome contemporary issues surrounding organisational structure changes and anxieties towards adapting to different ways of working can involve inclusive strategies such as support group conversations and reflections about self-care and the pandemic (BPS, 2020; Mind, 2020). This can be achieved through wellness action plans involving all levels within the workplace and promoting inclusion (Brimhall et al., 2016). These types of resources have been seen to be effective within healthcare organisations whereby people could be hybrid working in order to keep individuals more informed of their role requirements (BPS, 2020; Mind, 2020). Similarly, where stressors have been seen to impact newer volunteers, a self-care module during initial training periods informing volunteers of coping strategies for stress in their roles could increase health and wellbeing benefits, which has been seen to be effective for some hospice palliative care volunteers (Claxton-Oldfield, 2015). A study by Hatzipapas et al (2017) on volunteer community care workers found that laughter therapy as a self-care technique reduced stress through counterbalancing negative emotions found in emotionally taxing environments. Interviews to underpin the results observed on the scales reported better coping, healthier relationships and emotions after laughter therapy. The mixed methods approach used provides valid evidence of the benefits of the intervention (Hatzipapas et al., 2017).
Mindfulness
Similarly, mindfulness based strategies have been seen to reduce stress in healthcare professionals, who are often in ar similar environments that volunteers are in (Burton et al., 2016). However, it has been seen that for effective change, mindfulness interventions can require considerable personal investment, which has previously seen low attrition rates, potentially risking impracticality (Burton et al., 2016). Nonetheless, mindfulness based interventions can be delivered in multiple ways, including remotely, where evidence suggests they can still enhance the quality of life in clinical populations when administered online, potentially making them a more accessible option across voluntary organisations when personal investment is needed. (Sevilla-Llewellyn-Jones et al., 2018).
Employee led approach
In tackling work-related stress, a proactive employee led approach can lessen absenteeism and improve general wellbeing. NHS Hospital Trust (HSE, N/A) exercised these strategies by assessing in stages through informal chats, identifying where stress points and involving unions. They saw this preventative approach through increasing awareness to all levels of the organisation regarding work-related stress, improving workplace culture, and lessening stress, evidenced through reduced absences. Sufficient time was needed to engage all stakeholders which senior involvement helped to achieve, and having such engagement of management can sometimes be lacking in voluntary organisations (Elkin, 2013). It is important to note that programs which express the expectations within an organisation require effective implementation as it can impact the psychological contract, which some volunteer administrators may not have adequate training or professional aptitude to reform (Hager & Renfro, 2020).
Psychological testing
For leaders to cater to varied motivations of an organisation’s voluntary workforce, psychological testing is a potential tool to discover what motivates them and learn more about one another (Tremblay et al., 2010; Ziegler et al., 2010). Psychological testing has been seen to be integrated into workplaces to identify what motivates employees, such as the Work Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation Scale (WEIMS) (Tremblay et al., 2010), to identify positive and negative work experiences and enact interventions to meet individual differences within an organisation. Applying psychological testing such as the WEIMS to a volunteer workforce could have potential issues regarding its applicability to unpaid workers, although it has been evidenced to be relevant in different work environments (Tremblay et al., 2010). Relating to motivators, providing fun can be seen as a non-monetary reward and dedication from the organisation to volunteers, such as an annual outing (Callow, 2004; Karl et al., 2009). This could be a solution to reduce organisational stress through retaining volunteers, by showing recognition whilst also satisfying personal growth needs and intrinsic motivations (Loh et al., 2017; Maslow, 1943).
Continual Professional Development
Continually improving the learning environment that a charitable organisation provides can help reduce stress and contribute to better health and wellbeing. Continuous training development opportunities that are readily available for volunteers and within leadership roles can help improve confidence, skillsets and help reduce any job ambiguity experienced for volunteers and leaders (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009; Burbeck et al., 2014). Online training courses allow a wide range of audiences to be reached, whilst still facilitating information to be learned. For example, providing opportunities to do a range of training courses based on different voluntary sector aspects such as planning, governance, strategy and management (NCVO, 2022) allows individuals to expand their knowledge in order to effectively lead a charity and its volunteers. This is a way to tackle stress in charities, as it has been seen that appropriate leadership can help retain and create a positive workplace (Haslam et al., 2011; Fallon, & Rice, 2011). Similarly, resilience training for health volunteers could potentially help identify ways of coping with stressful situations they may encounter within their roles. Importantly, it has been identified that effective resilience training should include elements of one-to-one training and provide training based upon individual needs, which could extend from online learning, potentially making it harder to implement (Robertson et al., 2015).
Conclusion
Investigating stress in health charity organisations with predominantly voluntary workforces identified differences in leadership, motivations and varying roles, especially in regard to contemporary issues. Policies unique to charity organisations revealed issues relating to control regarding statutory protection (GOV UK, 2021) and volunteers having different rights from paid workers, potentially adding pressure for leaders, such as non-compulsory notice periods (The Charity Commission, 2013). It has been shown organisations can take steps in order to overcome these policy issues and retain volunteers through regular communication and ensuring recognition of volunteers, through non-monetary rewards (Callow, 2004; Karl et al., 2009). Volunteers often have exhaustive intrinsic and extrinsic motivators (Gopalan et al., 2017; Loh et al., 2017; Mahmoud et al., 2020; Maslow, 1943). With volunteer workforces, monetary pay is absent, therefore individuals need more from leadership in order to feel satisfied, motivated,encouraged and to feel personal growth (Malsow, 1943). Potential uses of psychological testing could help leadership foresee what motivates volunteers especially when motivation can be subjective (Tremblay et al., 2010). Unforeseen circumstances for volunteer organisations can have negative impacts upon role changes; for example, pressures and funding issues related to COVID-19 (Jones, 2021), ultimately increasing risk factors for stressors for both volunteers and their leaders. Some external circumstances cannot be foreseen or helped. However it has been identified that regular and open communication with the facilitation of one-to-one periods with health volunteers can help maintain a positive workplace and reduce stress (HSE, N/A; Robertson et al., 2015). Measuring stress as a construct is an overarching issue surrounding Occupational Psychology within all sectors, with the uniqueness and subjectivity of the way humans experience stress, as well as how stress is expressed, described and explained can differ between people, thereby resulting in a challenge of developing widespread coping strategies (Cannon, 1932; Fisher, 2014; Hefferon & Boniwell, 2011; McClelland, 1987; Szabo et al., 2017).
Reflection and Strategy Development
I have over a year and a half unpaid work experience within a Mental Health Crisis café. The café is run by a charitable religious organisation, Acts Trust, put together for the relief of poverty around Lincoln and surrounding areas. Within this organisation, I am a lead volunteer and keyholder. The trust overlooks a range of community services such as Crisis Cafes, foodbanks and youth work services.
The organisation’s vision takes a very group centred approach, to achieve social outcomes, with in-group leadership, focusing on ‘us’ and ‘we’ in its visions and referring to their work as a ‘mission’ which also instils engagement (Acts Trust, 2020). The use of collectives within their visions creates a social identity and basis to work together, which are also mirrored within the workplace as we see ourselves as collective teams (Haslam et al., 2011). The charity was set up by church members, who all had a collective goal in mind, so they represent and embedded a shared sense of identity, as well as demonstrated they stood up for a shared sense of identity, linked to a creative followership style (Armstrong & Huffington, 2004; Haslam, et al., 2011). Future strategies I would develop to my working life outside of the voluntary position would be identifying what leadership styles are used within organisations and whether I would be a good fit in regard to sharing the same visions and identities, as it is known that individuals are more productive when in a team with collective goals (Haslam, et al., 2011).
The organisation sets dates in advance for monthly volunteer meetings at various locations in Lincoln in evenings, in order to try and accommodate fitting into volunteers’ free time. During these meetings volunteers have opportunities to discuss how their volunteering is going, what is concerning them, engage in group discussion and activities, with a Clinical Psychologist present to offer professional advice and feedback on group issues. These meetings give ample opportunity to build relationships and create a sense of social support between all volunteers and leaders, which has been seen to foster healthy workplaces (Setti et al., 2018). Hosting professional advice within the meetings provides a sense of confidence that the guidance offeredis well-informed and relevant within the field of healthcare. Even though group discussions have benefits, they could be more effective through developing a future strategy of ensuring volunteers have an opportunity for one-to-one support, which is even more inclusive insofar as it recognises individual differences (McClelland, 1987; Robertson et al., 2015)
Having volunteer responsibilities within a mental health crisis café has highlighted that having on-going training opportunities is vital to keep a confident and committed workforce, corroborating literature about the benefits of offering training and development throughout an organisation (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009). When volunteers are given opportunities to communicate their concerns through monthly meetings,; for example, feeling unsure of duties and how to approach some situations are often commented on, the need for more training is highlighted. This relates to literature that explains how uncertainty of having an appropriate skillset can cause worry in a team, which ultimately lowers wellbeing.
The organisation has initial training which is compulsory before beginning volunteering, such as safeguarding and Mental Health First Aid (MHFA, 2022). However, some skills dissipate once time has passed and responsibilities change. Future strategies could develop this learning environment by allowing training to be on-going in order to instil confidence in one’s role and skillset, especially when given extra responsibly such as key holding (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009).
Strategies that could be developed to apply to working life could include the recognition of personal motivators based on the influence they have on how well a role is delivered (Smith & Liao-Troth, 2009). It has been identified that motivators change overtime and are assumed to be dependent on individual differences (McClelland, 1987). It has been clear through volunteering, the tasks and role expectations which are usually stressful are not motivators for volunteering my time and that I consistently attend due to realising that I am satisfying needs for personal growth (Maslow, 1943). Through getting promoted my responsibilities within the organisation changed, meaning my motivators adapted in line with this, and were testament to personal growth.
Within this organisation, strategies could develop in order to introduce succession management, spreading of abilities and mindsets throughout other levels of the organisation, to ensure readiness to replace current leader roles. Often within the charity, volunteers are usually too short-term to gain appropriate skills to be considered for future roles. Similar findings have been identified in research, highlighting issues surrounding succession management in the third sector as long-term committed volunteers will need to be replaced eventually, usually without anyone with the appropriate abilities to fill the gap (Elkin, 2013). There are difficulties surrounding this due to lack of consistent long-term volunteers in certain cafes, which can increase stress and pressure on the lead volunteers (which has been personally experienced). To help mitigate against this stress, strategies could be implemented to ensure opportunities arise for volunteers to want to consistently attend and take up other responsibilities, in turn encouraging personal growth (Maslow, 1943).
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