What are early years practitioners’ perspectives on fostering autonomy in toddlers in an early years setting?

Elena Carmelitano

BA (Hons) Psychology and Education Studies

Abstract

This project researches the perspectives of early years practitioners on fostering autonomy in toddlers within an early years setting. Autonomy is a key element of child development, as it allows children to make their own decisions and promotes their sense of control and self-efficacy. This study adopted a small-scale qualitative approach to research practitioners from a rural nursery in Lincolnshire, United Kingdom. Participants answered open-ended questions that explored their understanding and experiences of encouraging autonomy. To better accommodate the busy routine of early years settings, answers to the questionnaires were submitted in a written format, with data being analysed thematically. This study found a lack of theoretical understanding among practitioners. However, participants had strong knowledge, shared interesting insights into strategies used in everyday practice, and were aware of the importance of parent-practitioner partnerships considering consistency in learning and the risks associated with supporting children’s autonomy. Conclusions show that, while children are still dependent on adult guidance, they need opportunities to make autonomous decisions to form their own opinions and view themselves as individuals. This study emphasises the need for more practitioner training and proposes actions for changes to policy and curriculum design to improve autonomy in early childhood education.

Introduction

During the pre-primary years (ages 1-4), children begin to develop a need for independent decision making. This need can be met by practitioners working to provide children with opportunities to make autonomous choices. In recent years, there has been a significant push for the promotion of autonomy and independent choice in the Early Years Foundation Stage framework, encouraging the importance of engaging environments that allow children to be more expressive of their preferences (Department for Education, 2024). Ryan and Deci’s (2006) Self-Determination Theory proposes autonomy to refer to ‘regulation by the self’ (p.1557), meaning people acting following their own self-determined beliefs. They emphasised the benefits of fostering autonomy within early years, as doing so promotes children’s sense of self and develops their confidence, as well as their self-regulatory and cognitive thinking abilities (Brown et al., 2001; Carlson, 2005). 

Despite the importance of autonomy in children’s development, there is little research exploring the perspectives of practitioners in promoting autonomy in early years stages. This may be due to the risks associated with allowing children to make decisions on how they play and learn (Van Rooijen et al., 2019). This study aims to provide further information about the perspectives early years practitioners have on supporting autonomy in an early developmental setting, as well as promoting the training of educators in the subject of child development. This small-scale study used written questionnaires to understand how four nursery practitioners from a rural day nursery in Lincolnshire, United Kingdom perceived autonomy. This research provides insights into UK nursery practitioners’ ideologies relating to the early developmental stages and, in so doing, contributes toward research in this field.

Literature Review

Children begin to establish their autonomy around their second year of life (Evangelou et al., 2009). In early childhood education, supporting autonomy and decision-making is crucial to the curriculum (Foley, 2010), particularly with respect to promoting self-directed and self-managed learning for children, including those with additional needs (Bertram & Pascal, 2010). The Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) framework further encourages their developmental processes by promoting autonomy, choice and independence by advocating for children to express their own preferences and try new experiences (Department for Education, 2024). Bruce (2010) believes the ‘encouragement of autonomy and choice allowed for children to work on their own level, without a ceiling being imposed on the possible outcomes’ (p. 244). This highlights the importance of structured opportunities for autonomy, particularly for children with additional needs, to ensure their independence is being nurtured rather than limited due to adult-led expectations. 

There are many different types of autonomy, including moral and intellectual autonomy theorised by Piaget (Piaget, 1965). According to Ryan and Deci (2000), autonomy occurs when an individual acts based on self-determined judgements. Self-determination theory claims that autonomy stems from an individual’s intrinsic motivation in the absence of external forces. Autonomy differs from independence in that autonomy focuses on the motivation for an act, rather than on the act itself (Ryan & Deci, 1987). Confusion of these concepts among early years practitioners may indicate a lack of understanding of key theoretical concepts, such as autonomy and scaffolding, and the difficulties faced when incorporating them into their daily practices. This conceptual misunderstanding could be caused by a lack of theoretical framework training (Howard, 2010), an overreliance on policy standards (Dyer, 2016), or pressure to reach externally imposed developmental goals (Oosterhoff et al., 2020).

Building autonomy within early years, using strategies like free flow play and child-initiated activities, can allow children to explore their environment and determine how they use an area to meet their own needs (Green, 2013). These experiences can be further enhanced with adult guidance. Similarly, having strong parental partnerships with practitioners can also help when encouraging autonomy. Cooke et al. (2018) found that parents who were more informed and proactive about care arrangements fostered better outcomes for their children and inspired age-appropriate levels of autonomy. This could be attributed to parents being more likely to support consistent routines and encourage children to make independent choices both at home and within educational settings. Similarly, children were found to be more autonomously motivated when they could engage in activities that suited their own interests, values and goals (Mullin, 2019). According to the Early Years Foundation Stage framework, children should be presented with the opportunities to make decisions and express preferences (Department for Education, 2024). This can include the children deciding which song to sing from a limited number of options and gradually increasing the number of resources and range of choices as they develop. While autonomy in early childhood encourages independence and self-regulation in everyday tasks, such as preparing for school (Grolnick, 2009), a balance is needed. Practitioners must understand when to support and when to intervene, while considering both the child’s brain development and various behavioural factors.

The prefrontal cortex, a critical part of the brain responsible for executive functions, begins to develop during early childhood (around age 3). While it does not fully grow until early adulthood, it begins to control crucial self-regulatory processes, such as concentration, decision-making, and goal-directed behaviours (Uytun, 2018; Carlson, 2005). These mechanisms help children gradually develop control of their thoughts and actions. Between three and six years of age, children typically begin to engage in a broader range of cognitive activities, resist distractions, and select tasks appropriate for their skill level (Bronson, 2001). 

Furthermore, Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory emphasises the importance of guided learning and social interactions at this age. While children’s cognitive and self-regulation skills, such as impulse control and delayed gratification, are developing, practitioners can provide them with support and collaborative opportunities. This practitioner-led scaffolding, involving guidance, modelling, and interactive problem-solving is necessary for children to learn and apply these skills independently (Vygotsky, 1978; Bodrova, 2006; Barnett, 2019).

Simultaneously, the limbic system, a group of central brain structures that processes emotions, undergoes significant development from approximately age 10 to 25 (Schumann, 2021; Arain et al., 2013). During early childhood, however, children are still developing their emotional self-regulation skills and rely on trusted relationships with practitioners to support them with navigating their emotions (Erikson, 1950). To support this growth, structure and guidance must be balanced alongside opportunities for children to explore their autonomy. When children are encouraged to manage their emotions effectively, they develop a stronger sense of self, which improves their ability to make autonomous decisions (Graves & Larkin, 2006).

According to Social Learning Theory, children learn best by observing others within social contexts. Early years practitioners play an important role in this process by modelling appropriate behaviours and activities in a safe setting, allowing children to develop their independence (Bandura, 1997). This strategy has been found to help children create deeper understanding while building their self-confidence and promoting sustained interest (Ager et al., 2006). Encouraging children in decision-making opportunities helps them gain confidence in their talents while promoting self-efficacy from a young age and enabling them to make more independent and autonomous decisions (Reyhing & Perren, 2021). 

While developing children’s autonomy at an early age is beneficial, it is crucial to recognise the need for balance. Erikson theorised that children who possess too much autonomy may acquire a ‘precocious conscience,’ leading them to believe they have more control than they do, which could result in controlling, manipulative, and obsessive behaviour as they grow older (Graves & Larkin 2006). Erikson’s ‘autonomy vs shame and doubt’ stage typically begins at age two, during toddlerhood (English, 1975). Also known as the ‘terrible twos,’ the stage is characterised by toddlers’ attempts  to push boundaries and gain control (Gallacher, 2006; Green, 2000). Granting children too much autonomy without consequences can lead to entitlement or authority issues and cause them to struggle with self-regulation, which can lead to emotional and behavioural challenges (Bates, 2024). Adults must provide children with the appropriate level of independence to ensure that children can safely explore, play and manage ‘supported risks’ without falling into danger or developing bad habits (Department for Education, 2024, p. 112).  Whilst the theory of autonomy is well defined, there is limited information on how practitioners conceptualise and implement it within early years settings. Existing research has examined practitioners’ perspectives. For example, Robson and Fumoto (2009) found that practitioners view their professional autonomy as a way of supporting both shared understanding and children’s learning. However, many studies have focused on the application of professional agency , rather than its use in supporting children’s autonomy. This study aims to provide more information about autonomy in early childhood and understand practitioner’s perspectives on supporting this aspect of children’s development. The study also investigates how practitioners can balance the benefits and risks associated with autonomy and independence by allowing children to take supported risks and emphasises the importance of parent-practitioner partnerships and consistent strategies to promote children’s autonomy and self-directed learning.  

Methodology

To explore this research question, What are early years practitioners’ perspectives on fostering autonomy in toddlers in an early years setting?, a qualitative approach was used involving open-ended written questionnaires to explore practitioners’ experiences of supporting children in their growing autonomy within an early years setting. Previous studies have used this approach, as qualitative research is best suited for topics centred on first-hand experiences and participant perspectives (Erikson, as cited in Bogdan & Biklen, 1997). Geertz (1973) describes qualitative research as a snapshot of ‘social and cultural aspects of individuals’ lives’ (Agee, 2008). This method encourages an open-ended approach through which participants can provide thorough descriptions of their experiences and reflect on the development of their perspectives (Bogdan and Biklen, 1997). Qualitative research is typically conducted through interviews, with unstructured interviews being the favourable method. This holistic approach encourages a natural rapport between participants and interviewers, creating a safe space for potentially sensitive topics related to personal experiences (Jordan et al., 2021).

This study involved four nursery practitioners from a rural day nursery in Lincolnshire, United Kingdom. The participants had varying levels of qualifications and experience working with toddlers within early years education from management to general childcare practitioners. This was a non-probability sampling of convenience, in which participants were chosen based on their availability to complete a written questionnaire containing open-ended questions (Vahid Aryadoust, 2020). While this method provides snapshot insights into real-life practitioners’ experiences, it is ineffective for making generalisations about the population (Eckerdal & Hagstrom, 2017). Thematic analysis was applied to data, with themes developed using inductive coding. This type of coding works as a bottom-up process in which the researcher enters the study without preconceived assumptions about what they might find and allows for themes to naturally occur within the data (Bogdan & Biklen, 1997). 

The initial intention of this research was to conduct semi-structured interviews to collect responses from participants; however, the structure and routine of early years did not allow for staff to be released from statutory staff/child ratio for the interviews to take place. The study was then adapted so that participants could submit their responses to the interview questions in a written questionnaire format. Structured interviews would have allowed for more detailed responses, as both the interview and participants could have asked clarifying questions , which may have produced  more detailed responses (Jordan et al., 2021). Questionnaires, however, offer many benefits, such as providing the participant with more time to contemplate and construct their answers (Eckerdal & Hagstrom, 2017). The open-ended question design allows participants to provide extended responses that enable authenticity and depth (Cohen at al., 2017). At the same time, these types of questionnaires can be time-consuming (Cohen et al., 2017) and the style of the questions may influence the responses, as participants may respond based on what they believe the researcher wants to hear (Eckerdal & Hagstrom, 2017).

Additionally, questionnaires are typically quantitative; involve a range of question types, such as multiple choice and rating scale questions; and are distributed through online pathways. The online distribution of questionnaires allows for researchers to better access a larger and more diverse participant group, whilst also enabling the study to be more easily recreated in the future (Jordan et al., 2021). Studies have found that using remote research resources, such as email, can produce detailed interview responses, whilst allowing participants to contribute according to their schedules and preferences (James, 2015; Meho, 2006; Illingworth, 2006). This approach also creates greater accessibility for those who could not participate due to work commitments or personal preferences (Dahlin, 2021). Additionally, it accommodates those who prefer to communicate in a written format (Bampton & Cowton, 2002). The present study had a small sample size but enabled all participants to partake without work interference or additional resources, such as computer or internet access, which was necessary for the study (Cohen et al., 2017).

Informed consent was collected from participants and the setting manager through participant consent forms and an institution consent form in line with the Bishop Grosseteste University Ethics Policy (2022) and the ethical guidelines of the British Educational Research Association (2024). All participants were provided with participant information sheets before providing their written consent and informed that they had the right to withdraw from the study at any time without reasoning or consequences. Questionnaires were anonymised immediately and kept securely with access only available for the researcher and supervisor. Original data was destroyed at the end of study.

Analysis of Findings

Data was collected from four early years practitioners at a rural day nursery in Lincolnshire, United Kingdom. The date revealed four themes, which will be discussed in this chapter: understanding of autonomy as a concept, useful strategies used within practice, encouraging parent-practitioner partnerships and risks associated with providing children with autonomy.

Understanding Autonomy 

Early years practitioners play an important role in children’s development by providing children with an enriching environment where they can grow as individuals. Due to the practical nature of early years work, there may be a lack of understanding or focus on implementing theoretical concepts, such as scaffolding or autonomy, into everyday practice. This may occur as much of practitioners’ time is spent managing routines and immediate care needs rather than reflecting on theoretical practices. The data reflects that some participants confused autonomy with independence, and while there is significant overlap between these concepts, there are also important differences. Ryan and Deci (1987) believe autonomy is rooted in the incentive behind the action, while independence concerns the ability of completing the action itself without assistance. Practitioner B defined autonomy as children ‘starting to gain further independence’ and provided examples, such as ‘putting shoes on [and] coats on.’ Similarly, Practitioner A described autonomy as ‘giving the children a choice so they can make a decision.’ However, autonomy is much broader than this practitioners understanding, as it encompasses more than simple ‘this or that’ decision making. It also centres on children developing a sense of agency, defined as the ability to make intentional choices and influence their own learning (Ryan & Deci,

2000). This confusion could suggest a lack of theoretical training in early years education (Howard, 2010). The qualifications for jobs in childcare are typically acquired through vocational pathways, with a study by the Education Policy Institute reporting that, on average, one staff member per early years setting has a degree (Nuffield Foundation, 2020). This suggests there may be more practical focuses, such as meeting goals (Oosterhoff et al., 2020) and adhering to policy standards (Dyer, 2016), highlighting a lack of attention to understanding the concepts that inform these modern policies to provide an enriching, caring environment for children (Osgood, 2006). However, theorists like Hirst argued that both theoretical understanding and practical application were necessary in educational practices (Elliott, 1987). Overall, this

data suggests bridging the gap between practical experience and theoretical knowledge could enable practitioners to better support children’s autonomy and agency.

The practitioners with more experience within early years, specifically the owner and manager, demonstrated a deeper understanding of broader concepts, such as autonomy, within early years contexts. When questioned about their understanding of autonomy, Practitioner D explained they understood autonomy to mean when children ‘start to become their own person’ and ‘begin to discover who they are and what choices to make.’ Practitioner C identified autonomy as ‘allowing children to make their own choices/build confidence.’ The more senior members of staff also displayed a broader understanding of how to implement autonomy. This further insight could be attributed to the higher levels of training needed for these management roles and knowledge gained through experience. While Mistry and Sood (2012) suggest graduate practitioners are better prepared for leadership roles than more experienced ones, caregivers typically favour experience and a good relationship with children over qualifications and formal training (Preston, 2013). In addition, Preston (2013) found that practitioners who were moved into managerial roles too early felt an increased pressure to perform professionally and lost the satisfaction they initially felt when working with children. As a result, less emphasis is placed on the children and on applying theoretical frameworks to aid their development. Introducing more theoretical training for newer practitioners could develop their understanding and application of academic theories, which could potentially improve the quality of support (McInnes et al., 2018).

Strategies 

To promote autonomy within early years, practitioners have adopted many self-directing and engaging approaches. These strategies include free flow play and taking a child-centred approach by choosing resources based upon the children’s interests. 

Child-led activities, such as free flow play, provides children the opportunity to explore their space for themselves and supports their growing autonomy as they can decide how they want to use their time. This type of play can benefit children’s holistic development, while also helping them to develop their sense of self and explore what they can do (Brown et al., 2001). These strategies align with the theories of Montessori and Froebel, who advocate for independent practices that encourage play that is child-initiated and self-directed  (Montessori, 1989; Froebel as cited in Bruce, 2011). Additionally, Froebel (as cited in Smedley & Hoskins, 2018) believes in the advantages of continuous outdoor provision and encouraging interest in the natural world. Likewise, Montessori (2013) believes in the use of natural materials and that ‘children must develop themselves by their own exercises’ (p. 22), and these practices are reflected in many contemporary early years settings. When discussing how they promote autonomy and what strategies are used, Practitioner B explained how ‘in the room they have full choice of what they want to play with and pull all the boxes out.’ Moreover, Practitioner C described providing children with ‘free choice in play’ through an ‘open plan room, labelled baskets [and] open out area.’ Practitioner D applies a similar practice by ‘providing resources that provide the opportunity for the children to explore.’ Presenting the children with the opportunities to choose their own toys and play with them how they see fit encourages pretend play and helps children develop their imagination and language skills (Weisberg, 2015). While Montessori disagrees with pretend play, instead favouring that children physically do the activities they pretend to do, it can offer many benefits without risk. A study by Taggart et al. (2018) found that children in non-Montessori schools were more apprehensive about doing the real versions of the activities they pretend to do, such as talking on the phone, cutting vegetables and fishing. Therefore, this evidence demonstrates how encouraging self-directed and child-initiated activities through free flow play promotes children’s autonomy.

Another strategy to support autonomy within early years is ensuring that resources are based on children’s interests. There are many studies that emphasise the importance of learning that incorporates children’s interests, as individual preferences often impact what and how they learn

(Renninger, 1990; Sansone et al., 1992) and may also shape their future curiosity and engagement with learning (Artemova et al., 2023). Asked about strategies used within the setting’s everyday practice to support autonomy, Practitioner A responded, ‘[W]e have different toys out relating to their interests.’ Practitioner D responded similarly,  as they ‘give them resources that reflect their interests.’ The Early Years Foundation Stage heavily promotes interest-based learning because relating learning to children’s individual interests makes activities more engaging. Encouraging children to have and express their own interests and opinions early in their development helps them perceive themselves as individuals, which is vital for supporting their autonomy (Department for Education, 2024). Activities and resources that better align with personal interests, values and goals were found to be more engaging for children and encourage them to be more intrinsically motivated individuals (Mullin, 2019). As a result, interest-based learning in early years activities can support autonomy in young children.

Parent-Practitioner Partnerships 

Another important factor considered when supporting autonomy is building a strong partnership between parents and practitioners. Having this partnership established means there are clearer lines of communication between the parents and the setting where concerns and questions can be answered and experiences can be shared (Tizard & Hughes, 1984). Similarly, Bronfenbrenner (1979) expressed the importance of family and teachers with respect to providing the child with an engaging environment in which to develop. 

Forming strong parent-practitioner partnerships early on is important. These can work to ensure there is consistency within the home and the setting, as well as encouraging mutual respect and understanding along with open communication (Julius, 2017). Partnerships benefit all parties involved and help to bridge the divide for the child between their home environment and the nursery, making the transition simpler (Fitzgerald, 2004; Robson, 2006). Additionally, partnerships encourage parents to view the home as a secondary learning environment, be more educated and involved in their child’s development and support their self-directed learning (Eldridge, 2001; Wheeler & Connor, 2009). From the data collected, the practitioners also understood the importance of this, with Practitioner A stating, ‘I’m hoping [autonomy] will be practiced more in settings but will be difficult as if parents aren’t doing the same things at home.’ Practitioner B agreed:  ‘[A]s much as we promote it within the setting, parents aren’t doing it at home, so they regress’. Having parents that are actively involved within their child’s nursery provides consistency between the environments, leading to more lasting benefits

(Sims-Schouten, 2016), such as more confidence and autonomous behaviour in the child (Cooke et al., 2018). It is important for parents to stay informed about strategies implemented at nursery, such as toilet training. Practitioner B explained that, ‘in the past, the parents have taken the lead in toilet training and now we have to start them off’. The Early Years Foundation Stage emphasises the importance of talking with parents about this and offering strategies or signs to be aware of (Department for Education, 2024). Parents can benefit the nursery by providing a more complete picture of their child’s development at home, allowing them to tailor their child’s needs at the setting. Introducing collaborative goal setting and providing parents with resources and guidance can work as another good strategy to keep parents engaged and involved (Connect Childcare, 2024). Theorists such as Macmillian and Froebel believe in the importance of parental involvement, despite Macmillian acknowledging some of the deficits within the home environment (Cottle & Alexander, 2014). Froebel expresses the need for unity between parents and practitioners in order to work towards the child’s best interest (Kambouri et al., 2021). Furthermore, studies have found that children whose parents used positive guidance and responsiveness were more autonomously behaved (Linkiewich et al., 2021; Cheung et al., 2016). Partnerships with practitioners can help parents to support their child’s growing autonomy, as practitioners can provide essential information to parents, such as providing key strategies, offering support with behavioural concerns, and creating a consistent learning environment (Linkiewich et al., 2021).

Risks of Autonomy 

Along with the many benefits of supporting autonomy, practitioners must find a balance between maintaining children’s safety and allowing them the freedom to explore and learn the consequences of their actions. At this time in children’s development (often described as the “terrible twos”), they begin to push boundaries and fight for control (Gallacher, 2006).

An important balance is needed within early years, as children need support but also need the opportunity to explore for themselves and make mistakes. The prefrontal cortex begins to grow during this stage in childhood, gradually enabling self-regulatory functions including concentration, decision-making, and goal-directed behaviours between ages 3 and 6 years (Uytun, 2018; Carlson, 2005; Bronson, 2001). This means that, while children begin to express their need for independence and control, they are not fully able to regulate their behaviours independently without support from adults. Practitioner A described how they manage risks within the setting: ‘[W]e let them take risks but safely, we will intervene if things go too far.’ Practitioner B agreed: ‘[W]e allow the children to take risks but when these risks become too much… we then ask them to stop and think about how could they keep themselves safe.’ This highlights the importance of discussing risks with children to help them manage and analyse their own challenges to make educated, autonomous decisions (Barrable, n.d.). Practitioner D described how children have the ‘ability to see no fear;’ when supporting children in managing risk, it is crucial for them to understand it for themselves by experiencing challenges (Leitao, 2018.). Building on this perspective, the UK has a broadly risk-averse culture when compared to other countries, such as Switzerland, Australia and the Netherlands. These societies embrace the positive benefits of risky play, especially outdoors, as engaging in this type of play can build children’s emotional wellbeing and self-confidence within a safe environment (Sandseter et al., 2017). A Dutch study by Van Rooijen et al. (2019) found there to be many barriers to risky play, unable to be changed by just practitioners themselves; however, this does not undermine the importance of assessing risk in order for children to play autonomously. Therefore, despite the barriers and aversion to risk with the UK, it is critical for children to experience these risks for themselves to gain their own understanding to make their own autonomous opinions. Despite this, there are risks to encouraging autonomy, as sometimes providing children with too much control without proper consequences can lead to unwanted behaviours. Erikson (as cited in Graves & Larkin, 2006) theorised the idea of a ’precocious conscience’ where children granted too much control or autonomy in their early childhood can result in controlling, manipulative, and obsessive behaviour in their later life (p.65). From the data collected, Practitioner C expressed that ‘sometimes children need more support than they want.’ This can cause difficulties when trying to facilitate their learning, as children’s emotions can be greatly affected by their perceived level of control (Benoit Allen et al., 2016). Leitao (n.d.) expressed the importance of perceived autonomy by children, in conjunction with which children may believe they are completely autonomous in their learning but are actually guided by support from teachers. This allows for children to reap the emotional benefits of having control and making decisions whilst still being in a safe and guided environment. This aligns well with Vygotsky’s Social Learning Theory, in which educators use scaffolding as a method of supporting children in the mastery of skills to benefit their autonomy (Vygotsky, 1978). Creating this balance between allowing children to make their own decisions without giving them complete control accounts for children’s need for authority and structure, as they have not fully developed their cognitive abilities and still depend on adults for guidance (Ke, 2023).

Conclusion and Implications

In conclusion, the overall objective of this study was to provide further insight into the perspectives of nursery practitioners on fostering autonomy in a rural early years setting in Lincolnshire, United Kingdom. The findings of this research align with previous studies on the importance of promoting autonomy in early childhood. However, early years practitioners were revealed to have a central focus on policies and goals, rather than theoretical understanding of concepts that influence practice (Dyer, 2016; Howard, 2010). The findings of this research suggest a lack of theoretical understanding within early years practice in this particular area of Lincolnshire, emphasising adherence to policies whilst still encouraging independence in children

This study had several limitations. Firstly, the small-scale nature of this research resulted in a limited amount of data. Secondly, the small scope of the sample to a single rural nursery may limit the external validity of the findings and should therefore be considered in this context. Thirdly, the use of written questionnaires introduced many challenges, such as limited answers and lack of clarifying questions.

Further research into practitioners’ ideologies on promoting autonomy could include a larger comparative study using semi-structured interviews, looking into multiple early years settings that have adopted varying approaches, such as Montessori schools or forest schools. These types of settings have adopted differing ideologies that may shape practitioners’ perspectives in supporting autonomy, as well as the children’s opinions on risk taking (Taggart et al., 2018). Future work could also investigate the knowledge gap in autonomy between senior members of staff at nurseries and more junior members to understand if this difference in understanding relates to training or experience. Such research could potentially influence policies with respect to  increasing guidance for practitioners in order to improve development in the early years. 

Ultimately, this study highlights the importance of providing training to educate professionals about theoretical concepts to provide insight into supporting children’s holistic development and autonomy in an effort to support  early childhood education.

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